The epic of the lions of Faenza and the sword as a trade

The House of Manfredi, originally from Reggio Emilia, established itself as one of the dominant forces within the complex political mosaic of Romagna between the 13th and the early 16th centuries. The fame of this family—whose members served as lords of Faenza and Imola—remains a memorable and adventurous saga. From the late Middle Ages through the height of the Renaissance, they traversed Italian history, leaving a mark (for better or worse) that drew the attention of figures such as Dante (who referenced the “Jovial Friar” Alberico, “the worst spirit of Romagna,” and his son Ugolino, known as Buzzola, the rhymer mentioned in De vulgari eloquentia), Niccolò Machiavelli, and Francesco Guicciardini.

The Manfredi were the protagonists of every war that convulsed Romagna during this period. Their establishment in Faenza was not an isolated event; it was part of the violent fragmentation of Imperial and Papal power that allowed various military lineages to transform control over local militias into fully legitimized territorial lordships. Initially aligned with the Guelph faction, the Manfredi oscillated with extreme pragmatism between Papal recognition—obtained through the granting of the Apostolic Vicariate—and appointments as Imperial Vicars, as occurred in 1340 at the hands of Louis the Bavarian. This ability to maneuver between the two supreme powers of the late Middle Ages was the key that allowed Giovanni Manfredi to transform the office of Capitano del Popolo (Captain of the People) into an independent lordship, albeit a discontinuous one, as Ecclesiastical rule by Papal legates occasionally prevailed over the Manfredi state.

The peculiarity of the dynasty lay in its dual soul: they were territorial lords and, simultaneously, condottieri (mercenary captains). This symbiosis allowed the family to finance the urban and cultural splendor of Faenza through the proceeds of military “condotte” (contracts) signed with great Italian powers such as the Republic of Venice, the Duchy of Milan, and the State of Florence. While the city walls were reinforced and libraries were enriched with precious manuscripts, members of the house led men-at-arms across the battlefields of the peninsula’s center and north. It all began with Astorre I, who founded his own independent company, the Compagnia della Stella (Company of the Star), which quickly became a model of military efficiency and, above all, political ruthlessness. Under the leadership of figures like Astorre II, Faenza experienced a golden age, becoming a crossroads for artists, humanists, and musicians, perfectly embodying the Renaissance ideal of the prince-condottiero.

The Manfredi history presents itself as a family saga initially marked by an immense aversion between two branches of the same family and, subsequently, by internal conflicts that occasionally undermined the stability of the lordship itself. Ultimately, the division between the Faenza and Imola branches, fierce domestic conspiracies, and popular revolts instigated by exiled relatives represented a chronic structural weakness—especially when faced with the expansionist policies of the Papal States and the ambition of Cesare Borgia. These conflicts inevitably led to the definitive ruin of the dynasty in the early 1500s, marking the end of an era in which the survival of a lordship depended solely on its representative’s skill in the strategic use of the sword.

THE PROTAGONISTS

Francesco I Manfredi

c. 1260–1343. First Lord of Faenza from 1313 to 1317 and from 1340 to 1343. Father of Ricciardo and Alberghettino II. He died in May 1343, formally retaining the title of Capitano del Popolo, the office through which he had taken charge of the city’s lordship thirty years earlier.

Alberghettino II Manfredi

d. November 1329. Second Lord of Faenza from July 1327 to August 1328. Second son of Francesco I. Dissatisfied with his father’s policy of subservience to the Papal States, he allied with Cecco Ordelaffi and the Ghibellines to secretly enter Faenza and declare himself Lord, expelling the Podestà Fulceri da Calboli and his family. The Papal reaction was swift; the following year, the city fell after a 25-day siege and Alberghettino was captured. Though seemingly left free, he took part in a conspiracy organized by the Maltraversi faction in favor of Emperor Louis the Bavarian. Once discovered, he was beheaded.

Ricciardo Manfredi

c. 1285–1340. Eldest son of Francesco I, father of Giovanni and Guglielmo. Initially Capitano del Popolo of Imola. Third Lord of Faenza from 1329 to 1340. Early in his career, he served the Angevins of Naples. He supported his father’s pro-Papal policy until the expulsion of the Papal Legate Bertrando del Poggetto from Faenza in the spring of 1334.

Giovanni Manfredi

1324–1373. Fourth Lord of Faenza during various intervals between 1342 and 1356. Natural son of Ricciardo. His was a turbulent life, spent mostly in military enterprises, leaving little time for the governance of the city. Named Imperial Vicar in 1340 and Capitano del Popolo of Faenza in 1341, his lifestyle was marked by many contrasting events. Conspiracies, sieges, betrayals, the murder of relatives during a banquet, and brawls in the kitchens during an Easter feast characterize this figure. His actions were further defined by repeated struggles with the Papacy, alliances with the Ordelaffi and Visconti, his final surrender to the Holy See, and his release from excommunication. He was eventually driven out of Bagnacavallo (which had been left to him by his adversaries) by the local inhabitants, who, tired of his behavior, opened the gates to the Papal troops of Cardinal Legate Anglico de Grimoard. Contemporary chronicles describe him as an impetuous and sometimes brutal man; Matteo Villani wrote that he was “reputed by the Wise to be foolishly mad.” Forced into exile, he died five years later in Pistoia, in the district of San Marco.

Astorre I Manfredi

1350–1405. Fifth Lord of Faenza from July 1377 to October 1404. Son of Giovanni and brother of Francesco, he married Leta da Polenta, widow of the Lord of Mantua, Francesco Gonzaga. Astorre I (also known as Astorgio) is perhaps the most famous and controversial member of the family. A commander of great audacity, he founded the Compagnia della Stella in 1379, one of the first Italian mercenary units of the era. He was a man of profound contrasts: a refined poet in correspondence with Franco Sacchetti on one hand, and a soldier described as treacherous and a “bird of great heart but bad faith” on the other. After making an enemy of Alberico I da Barbiano (the legendary founder of the Company of Saint George) for having contributed to the death of Alberico’s brother Giovanni alongside the Bolognese, Astorre was reduced to such conditions that he had to lease Faenza to the Papacy for ten years for 25,000 ducats. The terms were not honored by Cardinal Legate Baldassarre Cossa. Letters were discovered from Astorre to the resistance in Forlì, where he had been sent to take possession of the city on behalf of the Holy See. Summoned and imprisoned, he was accused of treason and confessed. He was beheaded in the public square of Faenza. He was the author of sonnets and a prayer to the Virgin Mary consisting of 44 tercets.

Francesco Manfredi

d. 1393. Son of Giovanni and brother of the famous Astorre I. He spent much of his career in his brother’s shadow, though he displayed a marked independence. Lord of Solarolo, he is primarily remembered for his rebellion against his brother; taking advantage of Astorre I’s absence from Faenza, he attempted to usurp the lordship. Defeated, he was imprisoned in the very fortress of Solarolo. Released through the intervention of his supporters, he chose to negotiate with the Commune of Bologna, ceding the castle in exchange for a life annuity and a palace in the city, the so-called Albergo del Re. He is credited with opening a mint based on Papal and Imperial concessions.

Giovanni Galeazzo Manfredi

c. 1375–1417 (October). Sixth Lord of Faenza. He married Gentile Malatesta, daughter of Galeotto. Father of Guidantonio and Astorre II. No Manfredi inherited a worse legacy: he held no lands, and his house was mired in the infamy of many betrayals. Following the example of the Lord of Rimini, Carlo Malatesta (who would become his brother-in-law), he favored the cause of Pope Gregory XII against the policy of Antipope John XXIII (Cardinal Cossa). In June 1410, he succeeded in seizing Faenza. With the bull confirming his vicariate, the Pope also granted him the authority to rewrite the city’s statutes. He died young during a plague that struck Romagna.

Guidantonio (known as Guidaccio) Manfredi

1407–1448 (June). Seventh Lord of Faenza. Son of Giovanni Galeazzo, father of Taddeo, and brother of Astorre II. A famous captain of his time. Valiant as a soldier, he was often found on the front lines, revealing himself to be reckless and unskilled in tactical maneuvers. A man of action, quick in decision-making, and impetuous, he was as rash as his grandfather Giovanni; he embodied the family’s entire martial vein. He was the typical unscrupulous adventurer, faithful only to his own interests, to the point of being described as one of the most shameful examples of bad faith toward the principles professed by men-at-arms. Debilitated by the hardships of war, he died at the Baths of Petriolo, near Siena, or at Santa Marta ai Tufi.

Astorre II Manfredi

1412–1468 (March). Eighth Lord of Faenza. Son of Giovanni Galeazzo; brother of Guidantonio; father of Carlo, Galeotto, Lancillotto, and Bishop Federico; uncle of Taddeo; father-in-law of Cecco and Pino Ordelaffi. He married Giovanna da Barbiano, daughter of Alberico I. He took up the trade of arms from a young age. Like his brother Guidantonio, he was accompanied throughout his life by a reputation for breaking his word—a grim fame as a traitor that matched a biography marked by impulsiveness, arrogance, violence, and vengefulness. His behavior during and after the Battle of Anghiari serves as a litmus test for these traits: with reckless courage, he broke the Visconti army’s line by improvising a heavy cavalry charge on his own, which inadvertently allowed the enemy to penetrate the breach he had opened in his own side’s ranks. Wounded by a lance, he was unhorsed and captured by Niccolò da Pisa, who delivered him to the Florentines for 3,000 florins. Released after a period in Florence’s Stinche prison, he brooded on revenge. Two years later, he ambushed the commander in Bologna while Niccolò was traveling with a safe-conduct. Astorre entered the house where Niccolò was staying with eight assassins and killed him. He also had notable disputes with his nephew Taddeo. Conversely, local historiography highlights a positive side: the twenty years of his lordship represented the peak of prosperity for his house in Faenza, seen in the refined luxury of his court, his relations with famous dynasties, the development of buildings in the city and territory, and his love for music—factors that made him a leading figure in the city’s history.

Taddeo Manfredi

d. 1486. Son of Guidantonio and nephew of Astorre II, Taddeo was educated at the refined court of the Gonzaga. Lord of Imola, his career was constantly undermined by conflicts with his uncle Astorre II for control of Romagna. He first married Marsabilia Pio (daughter of Galasso Pio of Carpi) and secondly Luchina dal Verme, daughter of the condottiero Luigi. He had several children, including the rebel Guidoriccio and Zaffira, wife of Pino Ordelaffi. Forced by circumstances to seek refuge in Milan with Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza, he was imprisoned there until he was persuaded to sell Imola for 40,000 ducats to Cardinal Pietro Riario. He was granted the fief of Castelnuovo Scrivia in Piedmont as compensation, but this was soon taken and given to Roberto da San Severino; he was then given two minor lands. He fled the Duchy of Milan for Venetian territory. His final years were spent in a vain attempt to recover the lordship of Imola. He died in exile; the exact circumstances of his end are unknown.

Carlo Manfredi

1439–1489. Ninth Lord of Faenza. Son of Astorre II, brother of Galeotto, Lancillotto, and Federico; father of Ottaviano. He married Costanza da Varano, daughter of Rodolfo, Lord of Camerino. He drove his brother Galeotto out of Faenza despite their father’s will. In November 1477, the population of Faenza revolted due to the increase in the price of bread. Galeotto burst into the city through the Porta Ravegnana and was welcomed as Lord. The enraged crowd sacked the episcopal palace of their brother Federico, where large quantities of wheat, oil, wine, and wood were found. Forced to shut himself in the Ravaldino fortress, Carlo soon had to abandon power despite some external aid from the Florentines and Venetians. His lordship is evaluated variously: some emphasize his urban initiatives, while others focus on the excesses committed by his brother Federico. He died of the plague in Rimini.

Ludovico Manfredi

d. 1465. Belonging to a minor branch of the Manfredi. Also known as Ludovico da Marradi, Lord of Marradi and Gattara in the Val di Lamone. He boasted illustrious family ties, being the brother-in-law of Alberico II da Barbiano and Obizzo da Polenta. A condottiero and poet, his career was cut short in 1425 when, lured to Florence with a false safe-conduct, he was imprisoned for largely unknown reasons in the Stinche prison. The Florentines seized his lands. He remained a prisoner for nearly forty years, vainly pleading for freedom from the Medici through his verses. Released at last, he died that same year.

Galeotto Manfredi

1440–1488 (May). Tenth Lord of Faenza. Son of Astorre II and brother of Carlo, Lancillotto, and Federico. He married Francesca Bentivoglio, daughter of Giovanni II, Lord of Bologna. He is generally regarded as the quintessential High Renaissance prince. A good politician, a brave soldier, and a patron and cultivator of the arts, he was described—unlike many other members of his house—as having a rather kind and loyal soul, though he was sometimes prone to sudden fits of rage. He did not stain himself with the crimes so common in the courts of his time. Romagna’s chroniclers are full of his deeds, especially his romantic love for Cassandra Pavoni and his tragic end at the hands of his wife.

Lancillotto Manfredi d. February 1480. Son of Astorre II, brother of Carlo, Galeotto, and Federico. He served constantly alongside his brother Galeotto, supporting him in his bitter struggles for the lordship of Faenza against their brothers Carlo and Bishop Federico. He was an active captain on several fronts, having served Florence during the events of Volterra and, later, the Venetians. He was the brother-in-law of Pino Ordelaffi, with whom he sought refuge in difficult times. Lancillotto left no direct heirs and died of natural causes in Faenza a few years before Galeotto’s tragic death.

Federico Manfredi

Son of Astorre II and brother of Galeotto, Carlo, and Lancillotto. He chose an ecclesiastical career and became Bishop of Faenza without abandoning the primary characteristic of his house: the use of arms to achieve his goals. An ambiguous and powerful figure, he did not hesitate to personally lead militias to defend the interests of the family branch represented by his brother Carlo, opposing his brothers Galeotto and Lancillotto with weapons after they were driven from Faenza despite their father’s will. Despite his sacred office, he had a natural son, Ottaviano, for whom he tried in vain to obtain rights to the lordship. Federico died at an advanced age after witnessing the political decline of his family under the pressure of neighboring powers.

Ottaviano Manfredi

August 1472–April 1499. Natural son of Bishop Federico. Exiled from the city upon the rise to power of his uncle Galeotto, he fled to Tuscany. He was forced to stay in Pisa under strict surveillance, as the Florentines feared riots in Faenza in his favor. After a failed conspiracy on his behalf, he was left abandoned by all. He took up the trade of arms, fighting in the Pisan War for the Florentines against the Venetians. He became a friend of the Lady of Forlì, Caterina Sforza. He left Forlì for Florence to collect the remainder of his back pay. To save on travel costs, he refused the escort Sforza offered him. Arriving at night at an inn near the San Benedetto Pass, he was surprised by 25 to 30 assassins led by personal enemies. Wounded in the neck by a billhook, he attempted to flee, but a peasant stabbed him in the neck; unhorsed, he was finished off with thirteen blows to the head and legs.

Astorre III Manfredi

June 1485–June 1502. Last Lord of Faenza from 1488 to 1501. Son of Galeotto and Francesca Bentivoglio. He was supported by his half-brothers Francesco and Giovanni Evangelista. At the age of three, he inherited the lordship of Faenza upon his father’s murder. With the fall of his protector, Ludovico “il Moro” Sforza of Milan, Cesare Borgia seized Faenza in April 1501. Taken prisoner with his half-brother Giovanni Evangelista, he was sent to Rome and imprisoned for about a year in Castel Sant’Angelo. Renowned for his singular beauty, his death—according to Guicciardini—was due to “execrable wickedness,” making him a victim of his own physical grace. Murdered along with his half-brother, their bodies were found in the Tiber.