Blood and Mud: The Rise of the Da Carrara in Padua

Between the 14th and 15th centuries, Northern Italy underwent a profound political transformation with the transition from the free commune to the signoria (lordship). Within this fragmented and violent chessboard—dominated by the expansionist ambitions of the Scaligeri of Verona, the Visconti of Milan, and the growing mainland power of the Republic of Venice—the Da Carrara family carved out its place. Having risen to prominence during the communal age, they managed to hold the lordship of Padua almost uninterruptedly from 1318 to 1405.

The Carraresi were not mere administrators, but true “warlords.” Their survival depended on their ability to transform feudal power into military might, navigating precarious alliances and endemic conflicts. When Venetian pressure became unsustainable, dismantling Paduan rule at the beginning of the 15th century, the lineage’s resilience manifested through its cadet branch. Having lost their homeland, the remaining Da Carrara reinvented themselves as condottieri (mercenary captains), rooting themselves in Central Italy and intertwining their exploits with the existing powers (Florence, Milan, the Papal States, the Kingdom of Naples) or emerging ones (the Sforza).

During their rule, the Da Carrara successfully conquered numerous locations in Veneto and Friuli. Their story ended tragically with the Venetian conquest of Padua. Upon the surrender of Francesco Novello, it was the condottiero Jacopo dal Verme who provided the decisive spark for the men of the Serenissima to ensure the imprisoned members of the house could no longer cause harm. His arguments—summarized as “a dead man makes no more war” and “the costs of maintenance are thus saved”—were decisive. The Council of Ten decreed their death. Francesco Novello and his sons Giacomo and Francesco III were placed in a cage in the Doge’s Palace; they were tried for treason, sabotage, and for bribing members of the Senate.

In mid-January 1406, the former lord of Padua was killed in prison after being assaulted by twenty assassins. Seized by the arms and feet and dragged by his clothes, he was repeatedly beaten with clubs before being strangled by Bernardo Priuli. A similar fate befell his sons Giacomo and Francesco III, while a bounty was placed on two other minor sons who had previously been sent to safety. Notably, Francesco Novello’s natural brother, Conte da Carrara, survived the massacre, having distanced himself from his relatives to follow his own path, serving at the time under King Ladislaus of Naples. All three Da Carraras were denied the possibility of a dignified funeral. The morning after their deaths, an official declaration claimed that Francesco Novello, Giacomo, and Francesco III had all died of “catarrh” (respiratory illness).

With the death of the last Lord of Padua, an era that had begun nearly a century earlier came to a close. However, as previously mentioned, the house did not go extinct. Heirs who escaped the slaughter would repeatedly, though unsuccessfully, attempt to reclaim their rights over the Paduan lordship. More significantly, there is another story: that of the members of the collateral branch linked to Conte da Carrara. Seeking their fortune as soldiers of fortune, they became, for a time, lords of Ascoli Piceno and other locations in the Marches and Abruzzi regions.

THE MEN AT ARMS

NICCOLÒ DA CARRARA

His political career unfolded in the early 14th century during a particularly turbulent period in Paduan life, which saw the initial establishment of the Da Carrara lordship. Born in 1282, Niccolò was initially an emblematic figure of Paduan resistance against Veronese expansionism. Lord of strategic holdings such as Cervarese Santa Croce and Este, he fiercely defended his land, distinguishing himself in 1312 at the Battle of Montegalda against the troops of Cangrande della Scala. However, the desire for power and envy of the influence achieved by his cousin Marsilio I—the effective lord of Padua after the death of Giacomo I—soon led to open conflict with Marsilio for primacy over the city. In an attempt to prevail, Niccolò sought a marriage alliance with the rival Scaligeri, offering his daughter Iselgarda to Mastino della Scala. He was nevertheless outmaneuvered by Marsilio’s political cunning. Defeated in his ambitions for the lordship, he retired to Venice. He died in Chioggia in October 1344. He first married Elena della Torre and, after her death, Giacoma of Vicenza (whose surname is unknown). His two sons, Giacomo II and Giacomino, would both become lords of Padua.

MARSILIO I DA CARRARA

Marsilio (1294–1338) embodied the political pragmatism necessary to survive factional struggles. After being captured by the Scaligeri in 1314 and imprisoned in Vicenza, he understood that the survival of his power required compromise. In 1328, he made a decisive move: he handed Padua over to Cangrande della Scala in exchange for the city’s vicarship and the preservation of his family’s domain. He consolidated this strategic alliance by marrying his young daughter Taddea to Mastino della Scala. Chroniclers and local historians unanimously recognized his personal qualities, piety, irreproachable character, proven valor, and loyalty to friends—qualities often accompanied, however, by acts of cruelty toward his adversaries. He died after naming Ubertino da Carrara as his heir. The Procurators of San Marco were appointed executors of his will for the construction of a monastery and church for the Servite Order on the island of Giudecca, south of Venice’s historic center. Initially buried in the Basilica of Saint Anthony in Padua, in the Chapel of Saint James alongside Pietro and Marsilio dei Rossi, his body was later moved to the Abbey of Santo Stefano in the modern-day municipality of Due Carrare.

MARSILIO II DA CARRARA

Culturally vibrant, ambitious, and a skilled man at arms (c. 1340–1390), this family member represents the fate of cadet sons excluded from the primary succession. After his father’s assassination in 1350, he grew up in a climate of instability that led him to plot several times against his older brother, Francesco “il Vecchio” (the Elder), who held the lordship of Padua in his stead. Though pardoned, he sought his fortune far from the Veneto. He became a knight of the Order of Saint John (Hospitallers), traveling between Cyprus and Rhodes. At the papal court in Avignon, he was favored by Pope Urban V, who granted him several locations in Umbria. His successor, Gregory XI, denied these concessions and, under pressure from Francesco (who wanted to keep him away from Padua), appointed him Count of Campagna. His restless nature and oppressive methods of government soon led to conflict with the Papacy. He returned to Padua where, still a victim of his own ambition and with Venetian connivance, he again attempted the life of his brother Francesco. A new conspiracy was discovered, involving condottieri in the Carraresi service such as Bonifacio Lupo and Giovanni degli Obizzi. He was condemned in absentia to beheading, and his assets were seized. Many of his accomplices were captured and quartered; his brother Niccolò was imprisoned in the fortress of Monselice, where he died 21 years later. Marsilio then turned to the life of a soldier of fortune (ventura). He fought for the Papacy against the Florentines in the War of the Eight Saints, then followed Charles of Durazzo in the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples against Queen Joanna I. He died in 1390 under unknown circumstances.

CONTE DA CARRARA

A natural son of Francesco the Elder, Conte (c. 1350–1421) was the architect of the family’s rebirth after the fall of Padua to Venice. Initially destined for an ecclesiastical career as archpriest of the Padua Cathedral Chapter and later an apostolic protonotary, he abandoned the cloth in 1385 for the profession of arms. Permanently transforming into a capitano di ventura, he shifted the center of his operations toward Central and Southern Italy. Until the fall of the dynasty, he served family interests by coordinating his politico-military activities with those of his brother, Francesco Novello. However, his personal projects gradually distanced him from the fate of the Lord of Padua. As a condottiero, he proved to be one of the most valiant warriors of his time. His choice proved successful: after years of mercenary service, he established and passed on to his sons, Obizzo and Ardizzone, the lordship of Ascoli Piceno and other locations in the Marches and Abruzzi. His legitimacy in the Italian political landscape was cemented by his marriage to a daughter of Francesco Gonzaga, linking him to one of Northern Italy’s most prestigious houses. According to historian Antonio Rigon, Conte embodied a model of a commander linked to the past—not so much in his values, but in his “behaviors” and ways of conceiving warfare on the field. By then, success in battle depended on maneuvering capacity and the ability to arrange, coordinate, and move troops. Strategy and tactics ultimately proved superior to physical courage and the personal combat skills of a leader.

ARDIZZONE DA CARRARA

The son of Conte, Ardizzone initially followed his father’s path, entering the Padua Cathedral Chapter and obtaining the canonry of Pernumia. Turning to the profession of arms, he fought against the troops of the Serenissima. Before the final fall of Padua, his uncle Francesco Novello sent him to safety in Florence along with his brother Obizzo and 21 other family members. He served various masters (Ladislaus of Naples, the Papal States) until he fought for Alfonso of Aragon under the command of Braccio di Montone. In September 1423, he and his brother Obizzo obtained recognition from the Papal States for the lordships of Ascoli Piceno, Offida, and Rotella. Eventually, the papal forces under Jacopo Caldora and Pietro Colonna—without waiting for the end of the granted three-year term—ousted Obizzo and seized the lands. This prompted Ardizzone’s return to the life of a condottiero, serving alternately the Florentines (who accused him of disloyalty) and their adversaries, the Visconti of Milan. His final service was for the Sienese. Surprised at Montemerano by Florentine forces commanded by Simonetto da Castel San Pietro, he rode out to face the enemy without putting on his armor. He mounted his horse and ended his life as he had lived it: killed by a foot soldier with a spear thrust (September 1441). He was married to Antonia Sforza, daughter of Muzio Attendolo Sforza.