Warlords of Naples: The San Severino Military Dynasty (Updated)

The San Severino family traces its roots to Southern Italy with the arrival of the Normans. Its development was rapid. Alessandro Cutolo writes: “One of the most illustrious houses of the Kingdom of Naples and among the noblest in Italy. Nearly destroyed during the era of the Swabians for siding with the Pope, and during the Durazzo era by the hand of Ladislaus (of Anjou), it rose stronger both times. It contracted marriages with the Norman kings, the kings of the House of Durazzo, the Aragonese kings, the Sforza, the Montefeltro, the della Rovere, and the most illustrious families of Southern Italy… Of the seven great offices of the Kingdom of Naples, it several times held those of Grand Constable, Grand Admiral, Grand Chamberlain, Logothete (a role comparable to a modern finance minister), Protonotary (the head of the King’s notaries, responsible for drafting and sending diplomas), and Grand Justiciar (the highest administrative and judicial post).” In total, in Southern Italy alone, the San Severino house came to rule over more than 300 fiefs, 40 counties, 9 marquessates, 12 duchies, and 10 principalities distributed across Basilicata, Calabria, and Puglia. Like the mythical phoenix, following the extermination carried out by the German Hohenstaufen emperors and the aforementioned King of Naples, the house had the capacity to rise from its own ashes to shift its range of action toward other shores: from Calabria and Puglia with Luigi da San Severino; from Campania with Leonetto da San Severino, through his marriage to Lisa Attendolo, the natural daughter of Muzio Attendolo Sforza.

Through the profession of arms in the service of the Visconti, the first branch obtained fiefs in Lombardy and the Canton of Ticino (Lugano and Mendrisio). The sons of Luigi—Francesco, Amerigo, and Bernabò—maintained their influence in the Swiss region, albeit with difficulty. Roberto (the son of the second) through service to the Sforza, Dukes of Milan, and the Venetians, was able to obtain recognition of several lordships in Piedmont, Lombardy, Emilia, and Veneto. With Galeazzo da San Severino, the family’s influence expanded even into France with control of the castle of Mehun-sur-Yèvre in the Loire Valley. Over the centuries, the dynasty branched into numerous lineages involving the dominion of vast fiefs: in this way, it was able to play a central role in the politics of the peninsula. This file focuses on the military aspect of this house, which distinguished itself between the 14th and the beginning of the 16th century in the field of arms, emerging with multiple protagonists in the middle and final era of the world of the condottieri di ventura (mercenary captains).

A) THE SFORZA BRANCH

LEONETTO DA SAN SEVERINO

†1420. Count of Caiazzo. Lord of Caiazzo and other small localities in the provinces of Salerno, Caserta, and Reggio Calabria. Father of Roberto. He married Lisa Attendolo, natural daughter of Muzio Attendolo Sforza, who brought him a dowry of 4,000 ducats and several centers in the Salerno area. Chroniclers define him as a lord of many lands and a skilled condottiero: it was for these qualities that he was chosen by the father of Francesco Sforza as his son-in-law. On several occasions, he fought alongside his father-in-law against Braccio di Montone. He died at the siege of Naples during a conflict to oppose the militias contrary to the cause of the pretender to the Kingdom of Naples, Louis II of Anjou. He challenged the Neapolitan gentlemen of the opposing side to engage in a duel with him. Caraffello Carafa presented himself. He is hit in the face by a spear thrust. The shut breaks his helmet, penetrates the brain and mortally wounds him. He died in Acerra a few days later.

ROBERTO DA SAN SEVERINO

1418 (May)–1487 (August). Count of Caiazzo, Marquess of Castelnuovo Scrivia, Count of Colorno. Lord of several localities in the Salerno area inherited from his father; of other fiefs in Northern Italy obtained through his military activity, first in favor of the Sforza and later the Venetians (Colorno in Emilia; Castelnuovo Scrivia and Pontecurone in Piedmont; Solaro, Corte Madama (a fraction of Castelleone), and Villanova di Cossolnuovo in Lombardy; Cittadella and Montorio Veronese in Veneto). Father of twenty-five children, four of whom were legitimate (Giovan Francesco, Galeazzo, Gaspare, and Antonio Maria) and twenty-one natural, among whom Giulio, Ottaviano, and Giorgio (called il Faccendino) dedicated themselves to the profession of arms. He married Giovanna da Correggio and Lucrezia Malavolti. Cousin of Francesco Sforza; father-in-law, in turn, of other condottieri such as Francesco Maria Torelli, Cristoforo Torelli, Lucio Malvezzi, and Guido dei Rossi. Knight of the Order of the Ermine. Of a wrathful, fiery, and impetuous nature, he was often subject to violent fits of anger in public; stubborn, impatient, and thirsty for honors. At the same time, as Giovio writes: “a most excellent captain and worthy of being placed before the greatest captains of that time.” Rambaldi writes regarding him: “With Sanseverino, Italy loses the last of the great captains of fortune, one of the most notable figures of the fifteenth century. Among men of arms, Sanseverino may well represent his time, of which he had all the virtues and defects, the virility and weaknesses, the virtues and the faults. He was perhaps more a politician than a condottiero, nor did he ever take up arms for the sake of arms, but to serve his ideas and ambitions, and he knew how to obtain such authority that the greatest states of Italy treated him as a power. He was a restless soul because he always saw the goal of his labors escape him: and his dream was his own independent state.” Details of his military exploits, like those of other condottieri of the house, are reported in specific sections of the site.

GIOVAN FRANCESCO DA SAN SEVERINO

c. 1450–1501 (September). Eldest son of Roberto. Count of Caiazzo and Colorno, Marquess of Valenza. Lord of Castelnuovo Scrivia, Colorno, Cittadella, and Montorio Veronese. The last two locations would be confiscated from him by the Venetians. Brother of Galeazzo, Gaspare, Antonio Maria, Giulio, Ottaviano, and il Faccendino. Father of Roberto. He married Diana della Ratta and Barbara Gonzaga, daughter of Giovan Francesco. He was a leading figure in the political landscape of Renaissance Italy. Inferior to his father Roberto in the profession of arms, he nonetheless earned the name of a valid captain, though more cautious and less daring. His motto, like that of the other condottieri of his house, was “Nostro è il mestiero” (The craft is ours). The turning point of his career occurred in 1483, during the War of Ferrara, when his father was replaced in the command of the army of the Serenissima (fighting against the Sforza and Este forces) by Duke René of Lorraine. Giovan Francesco and his brother Galeazzo deserted to the enemy camp, while their father Roberto and brother Gaspare remained to fight in Lombardy for the Venetians. From this moment, he followed the fortunes of the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza; upon the latter’s exit from the scene, he also moved, lock, stock, and barrel, to the French cause of King Louis XII. He married his second wife, Barbara Gonzaga, one of the most beautiful women in Milan. It is said—the Venetian Girolamo Priuli reports this in his Diaries—that the sovereign sent him away from Lombardy out of love for the woman. He was destined to command the vanguard of the French army, whose task was to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. The episode, in its final outcome, somewhat recalls the biblical story of King David and Bathsheba, whose husband Uriah was sent to fight the Ammonites so that he might die in the conflict. The transalpine enterprise was successful; San Severino entered Naples following a victorious siege. He died suddenly in the early days of September at the house of his brother-in-law Giovanni Tommaso Carafa, Count of Maddaloni.

GALEAZZO DA SAN SEVERINO

c. 1458–1525 (February). Called “The Son of Fortune.” Ghibelline. Marquess of Castelnuovo, Count of Martigues. Lord of many localities in Piedmont, Lombardy, and Emilia, such as Voghera, Bobbio, Colorno, Castelnuovo Scrivia, Castel San Giovanni, Mirabello, and Gravellona Lomellina; in France of Mehun-sur-Yèvre in the Loire Valley. Son of Roberto. Brother of Giovan Francesco, Antonio Maria, Ottaviano, Giulio, and il Faccendino. Uncle of Roberto. He married Bianca Sforza, natural daughter of the Duke of Milan Ludovico Sforza, and Costanza del Carretto. Knight of the Order of Saint Michael. Grand Equerry of France. The judgment of chroniclers toward him is unanimous: a refined courtier, persuasive, elegant in speech and behavior, a great jouster—the most skilled of his time. From a military perspective, he was essentially a mediocre captain with little experience and prone more to cowardice than prudence: the least expert in the profession of arms of all the brothers. Having started his career alongside his father, he obtained his first contracts (condotte) from the Florentines and Venetians. During the War of Ferrara in 1483, he deserted from the camp of the Serenissima with his brother Giovan Francesco to enter the service of the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, of whom Roberto was a bitter enemy. He immediately became Ludovico‘s favorite: a career in constant ascent began for Galeazzo, leading him to marry the Duke’s only daughter, Bianca. While this evident favoritism soon led to his appointment as Captain General of the Sforza army, it also drew envy at court and the hatred of condottieri such as the Marquess of Mantua, Francesco Gonzaga, who saw the title of Captain General taken from him in Galeazzo‘s favor. Because of this exceptional social climb, which in two years (from 1483 to 1485) took him from the condition of an obscure son of Roberto da San Severino to that of the most important dignitary of the Milanese court, Galeazzo was called “the Son of Fortune.” It all seemed to end with the Battle of Novara and the final defeat of Sforza by the French: Galeazzo was taken prisoner by the Swiss, who tortured him several times to demand a high ransom. He was sold by them to the Bailiff of Dijon, Antoine de Baissay, for 1,000 ducats. Released after a few months through the mediation of his brother, Cardinal Federico (another son of Roberto), his assets were confiscated. He went seeking new opportunities in Innsbruck, where Emperor Maximilian of Austria resided; the chronicles now find him sad, melancholic, poor, little regarded, and always dressed in black due to the fate of his father-in-law. In 1503, he challenged Francesco Gonzaga to a duel: the Marquess of Mantua did not accept the provocation, responding with a long letter of insults and vulgarities. Suddenly, in the same year, after inheriting the title of Count of Caiazzo due to the death of his brother Giovan Francesco, he went to France to the court of King Louis XII. He recovered his skills as a courtier. He was granted the collar of the Order of Saint Michael and, after two years, was named Grand Equerry of France, a title never held by any Italian or foreigner. In 1517, he won a lawsuit concerning the possession of the fief of Castelnuovo Scrivia, held until then by Gian Giacomo da Trivulzio. In the service of France, he took part in all the campaigns of the Italian Wars from 1509 until his death. His death occurred in February 1525 during the Battle of Pavia, while attempting to defend King Francis I from capture. The following day, his body was taken by his men to the Certosa di Pavia to be buried there. His tomb has never been found.

GASPARE DA SAN SEVERINO

c. 1455–1519 (May). Better known as Fracasso or Il Fracassa. Lord of Piadena, Calvatone, Spineda, Cittadella, Mandello del Lario, and Varenna. Son of Roberto. Brother of Giovan Francesco, Galeazzo, Antonio Maria, Ottaviano, Giulio, and il Faccendino. He married Margherita Pio. Famous for his bellicose fury and daring, he is also defined by some authors as a “new Achilles” and “son of Mars.” From his early youth, he was nicknamed Fracasso for the vigor he showed in jousts, or “Il Fracassa,” as Guicciardini and Machiavelli did, for his aggressive character. He had the same violent character as his father; furthermore, he was a blasphemer—a term that rarely appears in the profile of a condottiero. All this did not prevent him from being regarded as a sensible and kind-hearted person. Gaspare da San Severino “represents the classic figure of the great captain of fortune. In vain one searches his long career for a feeling of patriotism; his main ambition is to carry out military operations and collect honors and wealth. Venice, although it had a very high regard for his skill as a captain… would have nothing to do with him because it did not trust him. In the portrait of this character, the classic man of action of the Renaissance is reflected in his defects and his virtues” (Adami). His military life presented a kaleidoscope of contracts (condotte) that changed in not always predictable ways, leading him to fight in many Italian regions such as Tuscany, Emilia, Lombardy, Veneto, Trentino, Piedmont, Romagna, the Marches, and Lazio. After serving several times alongside his father, upon the death of his kinsman, his career was no longer linear; he was often forced to accept or seek contradictory contracts, now in favor of, now against the same state. Venetians, Sforza, Imperials, and Papal forces used his services. Over time, a reputation for ambiguity increasingly surrounded him, also due to his behavior during the Siege of Padua in 1509. With the Venetians refusing to hire him (whom he had nonetheless tried to indirectly favor as an enemy on that occasion), he found himself honored but unemployed. His economic situation worsened. To reach Urbino, where he hoped to visit Duke Francesco Maria della Rovere, the Serenissima rid itself of his presence by giving him the 150 ducats necessary for his journey. He went to Rome, where he hoped for the influence of his brother Federico, the Cardinal. The disappearance of his kinsman deprived him of the few supports he had left in the papal curia. He spent the last years of his life in a growing state of frustration and misery. He died in May 1519 on the banks of the Tiber.

ANTONIO MARIA DA SAN SEVERINO

†1509 (January). Lord of Valfenera, Bassignana, Cittadella, and Montorio Veronese. Son of Roberto. Brother of Giovan Francesco, Galeazzo, Gaspare, Ottaviano, Giulio, and il Faccendino. He married Margherita di Saluzzo, who brought him Valfenera as a dowry, and Margherita Pio, daughter of Marco. He is generally known as a condottiero who knows not the word fear. “Third son of the lord of San Severin / frank conductor of the Signoria / the armored & ornate fine warrior / acted like a lion in the field.” This is how a rhymer, mentioned in the volume Guerre in ottava rima, judged his usual behavior in battle. His career was marked by the alternation of various and changing contracts in favor of various states; like a true soldier of fortune, he changed sides from time to time for the Sforza and the French; Sforza again, and after their defeat at the Battle of Novara, again for the transalpine victors. Chronicle books remember him especially for the episodes in which he was involved in 1487, in the service of the Serenissima, against the Austrians of Duke Sigismund of Austria. At Castel Pradaglia, near Trento, the Count of Sonnenberg challenged a Venetian to a duel, with a prize of 1,000 ducats at stake. San Severino stepped forward and immediately threw his opponent to the ground. He broke his lance while striking the German and was unhorsed in turn. He faced Sonnenberg with a sword; the two embraced and both crashed to the ground. The Count grabbed his sword and severely wounded Antonio Maria in the buttocks. The Italian condottiero, according to the pacts, had to surrender as a prisoner. He was taken to Rovereto and held there. The following month (July), he was released with rich gifts. Healed, he put himself back into play: at Ravazzone, also in Trentino, his action prevented his father and Giulio Cesare da Varano from being captured by the enemy. Instead, it was Antonio Maria who was taken prisoner by Duke John of Bavaria. He would only be released at the end of the conflict following the peace treaty.

OTTAVIANO DA SAN SEVERINO

†c. 1510. Lord of Montalbo in Val di Tidone and of Ziano Piacentino. Natural son of Roberto. Brother of Giovan Francesco, Galeazzo, Gaspare, Antonio Maria, Giulio, and il Faccendino. He married Luisa Confalonieri, Lady of Calendasco. Few notes exist regarding him. He fought alongside his father in the War of Ferrara and in 1483, with his brothers Giovan Francesco and Galeazzo, deserted in favor of the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza. He always remained in the latter’s service. Only one episode remains known of him: when, stationed to guard Valenza, the local governor Donato Raffagnino betrayed the ducal cause and opened a gate of the castle to the enemy. The locality was sacked and Ottaviano was taken prisoner.

GIULIO DA SAN SEVERINO

1475–c. 1555. Marquess of Valenza. Lord of Piadena, Candia Lomellina, Spineda, Cavatore, Tromello. Natural son of Roberto. Brother of Giovan Francesco, Galeazzo, Gaspare, Antonio Maria, and il Faccendino. Knight of the Order of Saint Michael. He married Ippolita Pallavicini and Margherita Visconti. Du Bellay defines him as “premier maistre d’hostel du roy.” Indeed, his entire military career was dedicated solely to the French cause. With the transalpines, he shared victories (Agnadello, Melegnano) and defeats (Bicocca and Pavia, where he was captured by the Imperials). In his multi-year activity, he also had occasion to face the Grisons in Lombardy, the English in England, and again the Imperials in France, when Provence was attacked by the troops of the Marquess of Pescara, Ferdinando d’Avalos.

FACCENDINO

†1507 (March). His real name was Giorgio: he was known by the chroniclers of the time as Faccendino, “a young man expert and vigorous in arms” (A. da Paullo). Like his brothers Gaspare and Antonio Maria, he was a true captain of fortune who fought for whoever granted him a military contract: which happened with the Aragonese, Venetians, Sforza, and the Lady of Forlì, Caterina Sforza. His tracks were lost for a few years until, in March 1507, he appeared in Gazzuolo, in the Mantua area, where a duel took place between Galeazzo da Landriano and Amerigo da San Severino. On that occasion, he had the chance to challenge, in turn, Mercurio Bua, for certain expressions he made toward the Duke of Mantua, Francesco Gonzaga, and the Duke of Ferrara, Alfonso d’Este. The Albanian condottiero did not want to fight Faccendino. However, he took revenge on his rival in his own way: accompanied by 25 stradiotti (mercenary light cavalry), he set an ambush on the road from Melegnano to San Donato Milanese. Faccendino was killed after suffering thirty wounds.

ROBERTO DA SAN SEVERINO (Roberto Ambrogio da San Severino)

1500–1532 (March). Count of Caiazzo. Lord of Colorno, Busseto, Biandrate, Pontecurone. Son of Giovan Francesco. Nephew of Galeazzo, Gaspare, Antonio Maria, Ottaviano, Giulio, il Faccendino, and Federico Gonzaga da Bozzolo. Cousin of the Marquess of Vasto, Alfonso d’Avalos. He married a niece of Pope Leo X, daughter of Franceschetto Cybo. Knight of the Order of Saint Michael. In his brief military career, measurable by the contracts obtained over time and the general captaincy of the Venetian infantry, the concepts of “valor” and “bravaria” (bravery) are often highlighted—the latter being a type of overbearing and unscrupulous violence that found its outlet not so much in the course of a battle as in actions based on surprise, such as skirmishes, raids, and ambushes. A “guerrilla fighter,” like Giovanni dalle Bande Nere. His end was unexpected. He went to Busseto to meet Marquess Girolamo Pallavicini. He died suddenly during the night after a banquet. There was talk of poison; more likely, his death was due to an epileptic seizure, as his body was found with his tongue rolled between his teeth. His figure is remembered in particular for an episode whose implications have greatly stimulated the imagination of numerous writers over time. The protagonist is the Countess of Challant, Bianca Maria Gaspardone. The woman incited the young Roberto to avenge her against Ardizzino Valperga, her former lover. San Severino procrastinated, not wanting to carry out the crime. A Spanish nobleman, Pietro di Cardona, then took his place in the Countess’s heart. The condottiero, seeing himself rejected by the new favorite, reconciled with Valperga and vented his jealousy by badmouthing Challant on every occasion. Pietro di Cardona surprised the first suitor in an ambush and killed him along with a brother. San Severino, mindful of the original request, went to the Governor of Milan, the Constable of Bourbon, and accused the woman of being the instigator of the murder. The two lovers were imprisoned in the Sforza Castle. Challant, subjected to torture, confessed everything and was beheaded in the ravelin of the same castle.

B) THE CALABRIAN BRANCH

LUIGI DA SAN SEVERINO

†1447. Count of Mileto. Lord of lands in Calabria (Rocca Imperiale, Mileto, Diano), in Basilicata (Marsico Nuovo and Pisticci), in Campania (Polla), in Puglia (Nardò and Copertino), in Piedmont (Sale, Mortara), in Lombardy (Mozzanica, Pandino), in the Canton of Ticino (Lugano, Mendrisio, Sottoceneri, Fontanella in Mascengo, Morcote). Father of Francesco, Amerigo, and Bernabò. “A man of great authority in the art of war,” Corio defines him. A specialist in executing ambushes, adds Cavalcanti. These were his peculiarities, which were common to many valid condottieri di ventura with whom he had the chance to collaborate or clash. After an initial period of service in favor of the Lord of Brescia, Pandolfo Malatesta, he returned to the Kingdom of Naples, from which he had previously had to flee. Queen Joanna of Anjou had the County of Mileto restored to him; in a short time, he was also gratified with the title of Marshal. He fought alongside Muzio Attendolo Sforza against the Aragonese of King Alfonso of Aragon, commanded by Braccio di Montone. He took part in the Battle of L’Aquila (1424) where the Perugian captain died. The remainder of his life saw him perpetually in motion, in the pay of the Papacy and the Venetians (in Friuli to face the Hungarians of Emperor Sigismund of Hungary and in Lombardy). Against the ducal forces, under the orders of Carmagnola, he defeated them at the Battle of Maclodio. There followed, on his part, the defense of Bologna (as Captain General of the Commune) attacked by the Papal forces of Jacopo Caldora and Niccolò da Tolentino, and a return to the service of the Serenissima. However, this period of enlistment was brief. A period of peace seemed to be emerging among the various belligerents in the peninsula: the optimism of the Venetians was clear, as they took advantage of the situation to reduce military spending and, in this case, cut his contract by a third; in return, he was offered a fief in the Bergamo area. He refused any compromise, preferring to serve under the Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, who, in order to obtain his service, recognized fiefs and a contract suited to his appetites. His career continued from then on through ups and downs (defeats against Francesco Sforza, Gattamelata, and Micheletto Attendolo), compensated by fierce looting in the Brescia and Bergamo areas. In January 1427, he carried out a further incursion beyond the Adda. Released due to his health conditions, he died the following April due to an illness caused by an old wound.

FRANCESCO DA SAN SEVERINO

†c. 1470. Son of Luigi. Count of Lauria (in Calabria), Lord of Carpignano, co-lord (with brothers Amerigo and Bernabò) of Pandino, Lugano, and Mendrisio. He married Elisabetta Caracciolo. “Vir acer” (a sharp man), the humanist Bartolomeo Facio defines him. He initially served the Papacy, Venetians, and, in the Kingdom of Naples, in favor of René of Anjou, who was working to assert his authority against the Aragonese of Alfonso of Aragon. Still against the Spanish troops, he also fought in Puglia in defense of the local fiefs of Francesco Sforza. His activity continued in Lombardy, where, together with his brothers Amerigo and Bernabò, he facilitated the ascent to the duchy of the same Sforza. Years later, Lugano rebelled against him; he no longer felt comfortable with the new Duke of Milan, Galeazzo Maria Sforza. In 1467, he abandoned Lombardy with his sons Luigi and Antonio. All his assets were confiscated. In response, he fought the ducal forces in the service of the Venetians under the orders of Bartolomeo Colleoni; he took part in the Battle of Molinella. His end is unknown.

AMERIGO DA SAN SEVERINO

†c. 1470. Son of Luigi. Brother of Francesco and Bernabò. Father-in-law of Roberto Orsini and Giacomo Torelli. Count of Capaccio. Co-lord with his brothers of Pandino, Lugano, and Mendrisio. He married Giovanna Roberti. After having supported his father in Lombardy in opposition to the Venetians, he moved to the Kingdom of Naples. Contrary to his brother Francesco, he fought in favor of King Alfonso of Aragon against the militias of René of Anjou. Upon the death of his father (1447), he returned to Lombardy where, with his brothers Francesco and Bernabò, he facilitated the ambition of Francesco Sforza aimed at the conquest of the Milanese duchy. For Amerigo as well, 1467 was a fateful date. Lugano rebelled against the authority of the San Severino. He too, like Francesco, no longer accepted the power of Galeazzo Maria Sforza. He abandoned Lombardy and his assets were confiscated. In his case too, his end is unknown.

BERNABÒ DA SAN SEVERINO

†1465. Son of Luigi. Brother of Francesco and Amerigo. Co-lord with his brothers of Pandino, Lugano, and Mendrisio. He married Carmagnola‘s daughter, Margherita. An experienced condottiero, his activity initially took place in the service of the Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, and subsequently in support of the ambition of Francesco Sforza in his project to conquer the Milanese duchy. Finally, his presence is noted in the Kingdom of Naples, where he faced the militias of the pretender John of Anjou on behalf of King Ferrante of Aragon.

UGO DA SAN SEVERINO

†1500 (May). Son of Amerigo and father of Amerigo. Count. Lord of Pandino, Lugano, Mendrisio, Ghemme, and Morcote. He married Beatrice Zurlo and Fina Rangoni. As a youth, he was sent by Francesco Sforza to fight the partisans of John of Anjou in the Kingdom of Naples. He took part in the Battle of Troia in Puglia, where he was initially reported dead. In 1467, like other kinsmen, he rebelled against the new Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza, who had confiscated the fortress of Pandino from his family. After an attempt to recover it was repulsed, he soon returned to the obedience of the Duke who, as a reward, renewed his contract. In the same year, he faced the Venetians commanded by Bartolomeo Colleoni and also took part in the Battle of Molinella. He again faced the troops of the Serenissima in the War of Ferrara in 1482. Taken prisoner, he was released under pressure from the opposing captain Roberto da San Severino. The latter procured his liberation in exchange for the release by the Swiss of his son Giorgio, called il Faccendino, and permission for his wife to leave Milan to join him in the lands of the Serenissima. For his part, Ugo, for the successful completion of the operations, left his son Amerigo as a hostage in the citadel of Verona: it is interesting to emphasize how everything, despite the mutual hatred of the two main protagonists Ludovico and Roberto, took place with the collaboration of Ludovico Sforza himself and his strong pressure on the Swiss. Released, Ugo resumed fighting his rivals. In 1499, he was arrested by Sforza because he was caught in conversation with the Venetian ambassador. Confined in Bologna, he died the following year.

AMERIGO DA SAN SEVERINO

†1515. Son of Ugo, son-in-law of Sigismondo d’Este. Brief notes concern him. Both are indirectly linked to the events of Faccendino: being a hostage in the citadel of Verona until the latter’s release by the Swiss, and the presence of his kinsman in Gazzuolo, near Mantua, at his duel with Galeazzo da Landriano. In the pay of the Venetians in 1509, guarding Cittadella, following the defeat of the Serenissima at Agnadello, he deserted their ranks with Pandolfaccio Malatesta. After a few months, he was arrested by the Imperial governor of Verona, Prince Rudolf of Anhalt. He managed to escape from prison and, although with little recognition, returned to serve as a soldier for the Venetians. His end is unknown.

C) OTHER BRANCHES OF THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES

TOMMASO DA SAN SEVERINO

†1406. Count of Tricarico, Montescaglioso, Marsicovetere, Ariano Irpino. Lord of Tursi. Viceroy of Naples. He is recognized by commentators of the time as the most eminent member of his house. He sided with the Angevins of Louis II of Anjou, who was intent on reconquering the Kingdom of Naples at the expense of the Angevin branch of Charles of Durazzo and his heirs. He is famous for a lightning action in Capitanata (Ascoli Satriano) where, through mountain passes, very thick woods, and fording torrents (70 miles covered in a day and a night), he surprised the opposing army at dawn: there followed the capture of two noted condottieri, Alberico da Barbiano and Otto of Brunswick. With the defeat and departure from Italy of Louis II, he moved back toward King Ladislaus of Anjou. He obtained his favor and several prestigious appointments. Suspected of treason after five years—given the always great power of his house in the kingdom—he was imprisoned with his son Vladimiro (Count of Tricarico and Duke of Amalfi) and other kinsmen such as Count Ugo of Provence, Count of Mileto and Belcastro Luigi, the son of the Count of Lauro Gaspare, and Ruggero da San Severino. Tommaso was strangled in Castelnuovo di Napoli. All were executed. The sovereign denied them all burial. The bodies of the San Severino were thrown into the castle moat to be fed to dogs.

BERNABÒ DA SAN SEVERINO

†1407. Lord of Nardò, Terlizzi, and Ruvo di Puglia. “A man of much value and much ingenuity,” Di Costanzo considers him. All his military activity does nothing but confirm this judgment. Like the other members of his house, he supported the pretender to the Kingdom of Naples, Louis II of Anjou. After a brief service in the pay of Gian Galeazzo Visconti against the Carraresi of Padua, he returned to Puglia. He was at the side of Tommaso da San Severino at the capture of Alberico da Barbiano and Otto of Brunswick in Ascoli Satriano. He repeatedly went to France, to Avignon, to the antipope Clement VII, seeking help in men and money for the success of Louis II of Anjou‘s expedition. With the defeat and departure of the latter for France, he reconciled with Ladislaus of Anjou along with Tommaso da San Severino. More cautious than the latter, he soon abandoned Campania to return to his possessions in Puglia. He thus escaped the slaughter of his kinsmen and resumed the struggle against the sovereign. He took refuge in Taranto with Raimondo Orsini del Balzo. Forced to abandon the city by sea, he fled to Calabria. He died of illness the following year, in 1407.

JACOPO DA SAN SEVERINO

†c. 1510. Count of Mileto. Little news regarding him. He fought in the Kingdom of Naples in favor of the French against the Spanish troops of Gonzalo de Córdoba. His warring activity ended with his capture at Calimera. He was released only upon the signing of the peace treaty between the King of France, Louis XII, and the King of Spain, Ferdinand the Catholic.

ALFONSO DA SAN SEVERINO

†c. 1539. Of the branch of the Counts of Bisignano. Duke of Somma. Lord of Somma Vesuviana, Fiumefreddo di Bruzio, and Langeais (in France). Father-in-law of Giulio Orsini. He married Maria Dias Carlone. He initially fought in Puglia for the Spanish against the French. At the end of 1502, he was contacted by the opponents and defected in their favor. He supported d’Aubigny in Calabria. Defeated in the Battle of Gioia Tauro, he was imprisoned for several years in the bottom of a tower in Gaeta, the Fossamiliaria. He was released only upon the signing of the peace treaty between King Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain and King Louis XII of France. Twenty-three years later, he resumed arms in a scenario similar to the previous one: he campaigned in the Kingdom of Naples, again for the French, against the troops of Emperor and King of Spain Charles V. He joined with Simone Tebaldi; together they besieged Catanzaro. The final result of the conflict was identical to the previous outcome: defeat. His assets were confiscated and he had to take refuge in France. He was promised an annual pension of 2,500 francs, which was paid irregularly. He was also granted the fief of Langeais. He died ignored by all.